Understanding Leadership Effectiveness in the wake of challenges: a leadership competency model

Authors

  • Samir Rawat Symbiosis International (Deemed University)
  • Abhijit P. Deshpande Symbiosis International (Deemed University)
  • Ole Boe Norwegian Police University College
  • Andrzej Piotrowski University of Gdansk

Keywords:

Leadership, Military organisations, Competencies, Effectiveness

Abstract

In this article, researchers will introduce readers to the concept of leadership through perspectives of different schools of leadership thoughts. We intend to bring to notice an important discussion on leadership in military organisations and its implications on non-military organisations and institutions. There is a plethora of literature especially borrowing from military literature, which can set the stage for our understanding of what could make up for a robust leadership model comprising of competencies like- power of personal example and influence, adaptive resilience, making critical decisions amid uncertainty, regulated leadership behaviors and thoughts, preparedness, communicating with teams and building trust.

Author Biographies

Samir Rawat, Symbiosis International (Deemed University)

Department of Management

Abhijit P. Deshpande, Symbiosis International (Deemed University)

Director, Board of University Development

Ole Boe, Norwegian Police University College

Department of Continuing Professional Development Programmes and Courses, Professor

Andrzej Piotrowski, University of Gdansk

Institute of Psychology, University of Gdansk, Associate professor

References

Andersen, E. (2012). Manage or Lead? Do Both. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/erikaandersen/2012/04/10/manage-or-lead-do-both/

APA. (2020). Social influence. APA Dictionary of Psychology. https://bit.ly/3HMxLzQ

Argenti, P. A. (2020, March 13). Communicating Through the Coronavirus Crisis. https://hbr.org/2020/03/communicating-through-the-coronavirus-crisis

Avey, J. B., Luthans, F., & Jensen, S. M. (2009). Psychological capital: A positive resource for combating employee stress and turnover. Human Resource Management, 48(5), 677–693. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrm.20294

Bang, H., Boe, O., Nilsen, F. A., & Eilertsen, D. E. (2015). Evaluating character strengths in cadets during a military field exercise: Consistency between different evaluation sources. EDULEARN15 Proceedings, 7076–7082.

Bang, H., Nilsen, F., Boe, O., Eilertsen, D. E., & Lang-Ree, O. C. (2021). Predicting army cadets’ performance: The role of character strengths, GPA and GMA. Journal of Military Studies, 10(1), 139–153. https://doi.org/10.2478/jms-2021-0016

Barber, H. F. (1992). Developing Strategic Leadership: The US Army War College Experience. Journal of Management Development, 11(6), 4–12. https://doi.org/10.1108/02621719210018208

Barton, L. (2008). Crisis Leadership Now: A Real-World Guide to Preparing for Threats, Disaster, Sabotage, and Scandal (1st edition). McGraw Hill.

Bartsch, S., Weber, E., Büttgen, M., & Huber, A. (2020). Leadership matters in crisis-induced digital transformation: How to lead service employees effectively during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Service Management, 32(1), 71–85. https://doi.org/10.1108/JOSM-05-2020-0160

Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership: Good, better, best. Organizational Dynamics, 13(3), 26–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/0090-2616(85)90028-2

Bass, B. M. (1990). Bass & Stogdill’s handbook of leadership: Theory, research, and managerial applications, 3rd ed (pp. xv, 1182). Free Press.

Bass, B. M. (1996). A new paradigm of leadership: An inquiry into transformational leadership (pp. xv, 225). US Army Research Inst for the Behavioral & Social Sciences.

Bass, B. M. (1998). Transformational leadership: Industrial, military, and educational impact (pp. ix, 208). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

Bass, B. M., & Riggio, R. E. (2005). Transformational Leadership (2nd edition). Psychology Press.

Baumeister, R. F. (2014). Self-regulation, ego depletion, and inhibition. Neuropsychologia, 65, 313–319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2014.08.012

Baumeister, R. F., & Vohs, K. D. (Eds.). (2004). Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications (pp. xv, 574). The Guilford Press.

Bligh, M. C. (2017). Leadership and Trust. In J. Marques & S. Dhiman (Eds.), Leadership Today: Practices for Personal and Professional Performance (pp. 21–42). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-31036-7_2

Block, J., & Kremen, A. M. (1996). IQ and ego-resiliency: Conceptual and empirical connections and separateness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(2), 349–361. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.70.2.349

Boe, O., & Holth, T. (2015a). The Relationship between Developmental Leadership, the Results of Leadership and Personality Factors. Procedia Economics and Finance 2, 26, 849–858. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2212-5671(15)00892-8

Boe, O., & Holth, T. (2015b). Investigating Correlations between Personality Traits and Leadership Styles in Norwegian Military Cadets. Procedia Economics and Finance, 26, 1173–1184. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2212-5671(15)00949-1

Boe, O., & Holth, T. (2015c). Self-awareness in Military Officers with a High Degree of Developmental Leadership. Procedia Economics and Finance, 26, 833–841. DOI: https://bit.ly/3lo2bRq

Boe, O., Nilsen, F. A., Kristiansen, O., Krogdahl, P., & Bang, H. (2017). Measuring important character strengths in Norwegian Special Forces officers. EDULEARN17 Proceedings, 1623–1631.

Boe, O., Piotrowski, A., & Rawat, S. (2022). An Introduction to International Perspectives on PTSD and PTG: Learning to Thrive from the Military. In International Perspectives on PTSD and PTG: Learning to Thrive from the Military. (pp. 43–59). Rawat Publications.

Boin, A., Hart, P., Stern, E., & Sundelius, B. (2005). The Politics of Crisis Management: Public Leadership Under Pressure. Cambridge University Press. https://amzn.to/3YEJuYa

Brewin, C. R., Andrews, B., & Valentine, J. D. (2000). Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68(5), 748–766. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-006x.68.5.748

Brodie, V. K. (2019). Disrupted leadership: Strategies and practices of leaders in a VUCA world [Pepperdine University]. https://digitalcommons.pepperdine.edu/etd/1048

Brooks, S. K., Dunn, R., Sage, C. A. M., Amlôt, R., Greenberg, N., & Rubin, G. J. (2015). Risk and resilience factors affecting the psychological wellbeing of individuals deployed in humanitarian relief roles after a disaster. Journal of Mental Health (Abingdon, England), 24(6), 385–413. https://doi.org/10.3109/09638237.2015.1057334

Brown, C., & Eriksson, K. (2009). A plan for (certain) failure: Possibilities for and challenges of more realistic emergency plans. International Journal of Emergency Management, 5(3–4), 292–310.

Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. Harper & Row. https://bit.ly/3lo2o7a

Bush, T., & Glover, D. (2003). School Leadership: Concepts and Evidence. National College for School Leadership.

Campbell, J., & Spector, J. (2020, June 29). Cuomo unveils foam mountain depicting COVID fight. Social media took over [Democrat & Cronicle]. https://bit.ly/3loguFF

Campion, M. A., Fink, A. A., Ruggeberg, B. J., Carr, L., Phillips, G. M., & Odman, R. B. (2011). Doing competencies well: Best practices in competency modeling. Personnel Psychology, 64(1), 225–262. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2010.01207.x

Canadian Forces Leadership Institute. (2005). Leadership in the Canadian Forces Conceptual foundations (A-PA-005-000/AP-004). Canadian Forces Leadership Institute.

Cao, W., Qi, X., Cai, D. A., & Han, X. (2018). Modeling posttraumatic growth among cancer patients: The roles of social support, appraisals, and adaptive coping. Psycho-Oncology, 27(1), 208–215. https://doi.org/10.1002/pon.4395

Carasco-Saul, M., Kim, W., & Kim, T. (2015). Leadership and Employee Engagement: Proposing Research Agendas Through a Review of Literature. Human Resource Development Review, 14(1), 38–63. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534484314560406

Carlyle, T. (1841). On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and The Heroic in History. james Frase.

Chen, X.-P., Lam, S. S. K., Naumann, S. E., & Schaubroeck, J. (2005). Group Citizenship Behaviour Conceptualization and Preliminary Tests of its Antecedents and Consequences. Management and Organization Review, 1(2), 273–300. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1740-8784.2005.00012.x

Chewning, E., Chinn, D., McNall, E. Y., & Rutherford, S. (2020, May 27). Lessons from the military for COVID-time leadership [Text]. Australian Institute of Police Management. https://www.aipm.gov.au/covid-lessons-military

Chibber, M. L. (1986). Military Leadership to Prevent Military Coup. Lancer International.

Chin, R. J. (2015). Examining teamwork and leadership in the fields of public administration, leadership, and management. Team Performance Management: An International Journal, 21(3/4), 199–216. https://doi.org/10.1108/TPM-07-2014-0037

Dane, E., & Pratt, M. G. (2007). Exploring Intuition and Its Role in Managerial Decision Making. The Academy of Management Review, 32(1), 33–54. https://doi.org/10.2307/20159279

Davies, B. J., & Davies, B. (2004). Strategic leadership. School Leadership & Management, 24(1), 29–38. https://doi.org/10.1080/1363243042000172804

Davis-Laack, P. (2014). Addicted to busy: Your blueprint for burnout prevention (pp. 1–31). Davis Laack Stress & Resilience Institute, LLC.

Dirks, K. T., & Ferrin, D. L. (2002). Trust in leadership: Meta-analytic findings and implications for research and practice. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(4), 611–628. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.87.4.611

Dittman, M. (2003). Lessons from Jonestown. APA Monitor, 34(10). https://www.apa.org/monitor/nov03/jonestown

Dotlich, D. L., Cairo, P. C., & Rhinesmith, S. H. (2009). Leading in Times of Crisis: Navigating Through Complexity, Diversity and Uncertainty to Save Your Business: 281 (1st edition). Jossey-Bass.

Downton, J. V. (1973). Rebel Leadership: Commitment and Charisma in the Revolutionary Process (1st edition). Free Press.

Feder, A., Southwick, S. M., Goetz, R. R., Wang, Y., Alonso, A., Smith, B. W., Buchholz, K. R., Waldeck, T., Ameli, R., Moore, J., Hain, R., Charney, D. S., & Vythilingam, M. (2008). Posttraumatic growth in former Vietnam prisoners of war. Psychiatry, 71(4), 359–370. https://doi.org/10.1521/psyc.2008.71.4.359

Folan, L. N. (2019). Defining a research model of leader resilience and evaluating the dispositional effect of resilience on transformational leadership [Prof, Murdoch University]. In Folan, Lynda N. <https://researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au/view/author/Folan, Lynda.html> (2019) Defining a research model of leader resilience and evaluating the dispositional effect of resilience on transformational leadership. Professional Doctorate thesis, Murdoch University. https://researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au/id/eprint/52183/

Forstmeier, S., Kuwert, P., Spitzer, C., Freyberger, H. J., & Maercker, A. (2009). Posttraumatic Growth, Social Acknowledgment as Survivors, and Sense of Coherence in Former German Child Soldiers of World War II. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 17(12), 1030–1039. https://doi.org/10.1097/JGP.0b013e3181ab8b36

Fredrickson, B. L., Tugade, M. M., Waugh, C. E., & Larkin, G. R. (2003). What Good Are Positive Emotions in Crises? A Prospective Study of Resilience and Emotions Following the Terrorist Attacks on the United States on September 11th, 2001. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(2), 365–376.

Gabilot, E. (2020, March 24). The ABCs of leadership in crisis. Maryland Association of CPAs (MACPA). https://www.macpa.org/the-abcs-of-leadership-in-crisis/

Gallaway, M. S., Millikan, A. M., & Bell, M. R. (2011). The association between deployment-related posttraumatic growth among U.S. army soldiers and negative behavioral health conditions. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 67(12), 1151–1160. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20837

Gill, R. (2021). Theory and Practice of Leadership (2nd ed.). SAGE Publications Ltd. https://uk.sagepub.com/en-gb/eur/theory-and-practice-of-leadership/book234019

Goleman, & Boyatzis, R. E. (2017, February 6). Emotional Intelligence Has 12 Elements. Which Do You Need to Work On? Harvard Business Review. https://bit.ly/3YfNn5O

Goleman, D., McKee, A., & Boyatzis, R. E. (2002). Primal Leadership: Realizing the Power of Emotional Intelligence (1st edition). Harvard Business Review Press.

Golembiewski, R., & Mcconkie, M. (1975). The centrality of interpersonal trust in group processes. Undefined. https://bit.ly/3x7GzLB

Hencley, S. (1973). Situational behavioral approach to the study of educational leadership. In L. C. Cunningham & W. J. Gephart (Eds.), Leadership: The Science and Art Today (pp. 139–164). F.E. Peacock.

Holth, T., & Boe, O. (2017). Enhancing the Leadership Communication Skills of Norwegian Military Officers. Arts and Social Sciences Journal, 08(01). https://doi.org/10.4172/2151-6200.1000250

House, R. J. (1971). A Path Goal Theory of Leader Effectiveness. Administrative Science Quarterly, 16(3), 321–339. https://doi.org/10.2307/2391905

Howitt, A. M., & Leonard, H. B. (Eds.). (2009). Managing Crises: Responses to Large-Scale Emergencies (1st edition). CQ Press.

Hoy, W., & Miskel, C. (2012). Educational Administration: Theory, Research, and Practice (9th ed.). McGraw-Hill. https://bit.ly/3HOCkcK

Iversen, A. C., van Staden, L., Hughes, J. H., Greenberg, N., Hotopf, M., Rona, R. J., Thornicroft, G., Wessely, S., & Fear, N. T. (2011). The stigma of mental health problems and other barriers to care in the UK Armed Forces. BMC Health Services Research, 11, 31. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6963-11-31

Johnson, T. (2018). Crisis Leadership: How to lead in times of crisis, threat and uncertainty. Bloomsbury Business.

Kaczmarek, W., Hankus-Kubicka, A., & Kaczmarek, A. (2012). The use of management methods in hierarchical organizations. National Defense University Publishing House.

Khan, H., Rehmat, M., Butt, T. H., Farooqi, S., & Asim, J. (2020). Impact of transformational leadership on work performance, burnout and social loafing: A mediation model. Future Business Journal, 6(1), 40. https://doi.org/10.1186/s43093-020-00043-8

Kielkowski, R. (2013). Leadership During Crisis. Journal of Leadership Studies, 7(62), 62–65. https://doi.org/10.1002/JLS.21325

Koshemani, O. (2020, July 28). What qualities do leaders need for an increasingly VUCA world? People Management. https://bit.ly/3jK67LL

Kulka, R. A., Schlenger, W. E., Fairbank, J. A., Jordan, B. K., Hough, R. L., Marmar, C. R., & Weiss, D. S. (1991). Assessment of posttraumatic stress disorder in the community: Prospects and pitfalls from recent studies of Vietnam veterans. Psychological Assessment: A Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 3(4), 547–560. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.3.4.547

Kuusisto, R., Kuusisto, T., & Armistead, L. (2005). Common Operational Picture, Situation Awareness and Information Operations. Proc. of the 4th European Conference on Information Warfare and Security, 175–185.

Laker, B., & Patel, C. (2020, August 28). Strengthen Your Ability to Influence People. Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/2020/08/strengthen-your-ability-to-influence-people

LaRocca, M. A., Scogin, F. R., Hilgeman, M. M., Smith, A. J., & Chaplin, W. F. (2018). The impact of posttraumatic growth, transformational leadership, and self-efficacy on PTSD and depression symptom severity among combat Veterans. Military Psychology, 30(2), 162–173. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2018.1425073

Leigh, C. (2012). Examining the Relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Styles of U.S. Navy Senior Enlisted Leaders.

Lewinska, M. (2016). The Role of Communication in Military Leadership. Journal of Corporate Responsibility and Leadership, 2(1). https://doi.org/10.12775/JCRL.2015.003

Lewis, A. (2021, March 4). Importance of Trust in Leadership. Harvard Business Publishing. https://www.harvardbusiness.org/good-leadership-it-all-starts-with-trust/

Li, W., Zhan, J., & Lu, Y. (2016). A study of transformational leadership, strategic flexibility, and firm performance: The moderating role of environmental dynamism. Journal of Global Business Insights, 1(2), 73–84. https://doi.org/10.5038/2640-6489.1.2.1009

Limerick, D., Cunnington, B., & Crowther, F. (2002). Managing the New Organisation: Collaboration and sustainability in the post-corporate world, 2nd edition (2nd ed.). Business & Professional Publishing.

Lord, R. G., de Vader, C. L., & Alliger, G. M. (1986). A meta-analysis of the relation between personality traits and leadership perceptions: An application of validity generalization procedures. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71(3), 402–410. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.71.3.402

Luthans, F., Avolio, B. J., Walumbwa, F. O., & Li, W. (2005). The Psychological Capital of Chinese Workers: Exploring the Relationship with Performance. Management and Organization Review, 1(02), 249–271. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1740-8784.2005.00011.x

Mamon, D., Solomon, Z., & Dekel, S. (2016). Obsessive Compulsive Symptoms Predict Posttraumatic Growth: A Longitudinal Study. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 21(6), 484–491. https://doi.org/10.1080/15325024.2015.1117931

Martin, B. (1982). Critique of Nuclear Extinction. Journal of Peace Research, 19(4), 287–300. https://doi.org/10.1177/002234338201900401

McChrystal, G. S., Collins, T., Silverman, D., & Fussell, C. (2015). Team of Teams: New Rules of Engagement for a Complex World (Illustrated edition). Portfolio.

McClelland, M. M., Cameron, C. E., Duncan, R., Bowles, R. P., Acock, A. C., Miao, A., & Pratt, M. E. (2014). Predictors of early growth in academic achievement: The head-toes-knees-shoulders task. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 599. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00599

McLarnon, M. J. W., Rothstein, M. G., & King, G. A. (2021). Resiliency to adversity in military personnel: The role of self-regulation. Military Psychology, 33(2), 104–114. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2021.1897492

McLaughlin, P., & Levenson, A. (2020, June 4). New Leadership Challenges for the Virtual World of Work. MIT Sloan Management Review. https://bit.ly/3JV3JwC

Miranda, L. (2021, May 19). Forbes India - Building Trust: Four Ways To Lead In A Crisis. Forbes India. https://www.forbesindia.com/blog/coronavirus/building-trust-four-ways-to-lead-in-a-crisis/

Morrison, J. L., & Oladujoye, G. T. (2013). CEO Effectiveness For Leading Pre-Event Natural Disaster Preparedness Planning To Meet The Needs Of Employees And Their Families. Journal of Business & Economics Research, 11(5), 203–212.

Neria, Y., Nandi, A., & Galea, S. (2008). Post-traumatic stress disorder following disasters: A systematic review. Psychological Medicine, 38(4), 467–480. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291707001353

Nilsen, F. A., Bang, H., Boe, O., Martinsen, Ø. L., Lang-Ree, O. C., & Røysamb, E. (2020). The Multidimensional Self-Control Scale (MSCS): Development and validation. Psychological Assessment, 32(11), 1057–1074. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000950

Northouse, P. G. (2010). Leadership: Theory and Practice (Fifth Edition). SAGE Publications, Inc.

Northouse, P. G. (2015). Leadership: Theory and Practice, 7th Edition (Seventh edition). SAGE Publications, Inc.

Office for the chief of inforamtion Department of the Army. (1911). Quotes for the Military Writer. US Army Command Information Unit.

Piotrowski, A., Boe, O., Rawat, S., & Deshpande, A. (2020). Organizational climate, organizational support and citizenship behavior in the army. Scientific Journal of the Military University of Land Forces, 3, 698–713. https://doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0014.3964

Prati, G., & Pietrantoni, L. (2009). Optimism, Social Support, and Coping Strategies As Factors Contributing to Posttraumatic Growth: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 14(5), 364–388. https://doi.org/10.1080/15325020902724271

Rawat, S. (2017). Military Psychology and Leadership Development. Rawat Publications.

Rawat, S. (2021, July 20). Gateways to Self-Regulation And Applied Psychology: Learning To Thrive In Pandemic From Military. 32nd Internatiuonal Congress of Psychology, Prague.

Rawat, S., Boe, O., & Piotrowski, A. (2020). An Introduction to Post-Pandemic Reconstruction Making Sense of Military Training in Context of COVID-19 Pandemic. In Military Psychology Response to Post-Pandemic Reconstruction (Vol. 1, pp. 39–57). Rawat Publications.

Rawat, S., Deshpande, A. P., Joshi, P., Boe, O., & Piotrowski, A. (2022). Adaptive Resilience Building for Force Preservation to Battle Pandemic the Military Way. HUMAN REVIEW. International Humanities Review / Revista Internacional de Humanidades, 11(2), Article 2. https://doi.org/10.37467/revhuman.v11.3497

Richardson, G. E. (2002). The metatheory of resilience and resiliency. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58(3), 307–321. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.10020

Rico, R., & Cohen, S. G. (2005). Effects of task interdependence and type of communication on performance in virtual teams. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 20(3–4), 261–274. https://doi.org/10.1108/02683940510589046

Riggio, R. E. (2009, March 24). Are You a Transformational Leader? Psychology Today. https://bit.ly/3YtnKye

Rodriguez, D., Patel, R., Bright, A., Gregory, D., & Gowing, M. K. (2002). Developing competency models to promote integrated human resource practices. Human Resource Management, 41(3), 309–324. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrm.10043

Schall, M., & Schütz, A. (2019). Emotion-regulation knowledge predicts perceived stress early but not later in soldiers’ careers. Journal of Workplace Behavioral Health, 34(1), 62–73. https://doi.org/10.1080/15555240.2019.1573688

Schmid, E. A., Pircher Verdorfer, A., & Peus, C. (2019). Shedding Light on Leaders’ Self-Interest: Theory and Measurement of Exploitative Leadership. Journal of Management, 45(4), 1401–1433. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206317707810

Schyns, B., & Schilling, J. (2013). How bad are the effects of bad leaders? A meta-analysis of destructive leadership and its outcomes. The Leadership Quarterly, 24(1), 138–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2012.09.001

Shepherd, D. A., & Williams, T. A. (2014). Local Venturing as Compassion Organizing in the Aftermath of a Natural Disaster: The Role of Localness and Community in Reducing Suffering. Journal of Management Studies, 51(6), 952–994. https://doi.org/10.1111/joms.12084

Silverman, S. (2020, July 8). Dealing with volatility, uncertainty, complexity and ambiguity in a Covid-19 environment. The Business Journals. https://bit.ly/40EZj2B

Simon, H. A. (1996). The Sciences of the Artificial. MIT Press.

Smirl, P. (2018, August 23). The Keys to Transformational Leadership. Wisconsin School of Business. https://business.wisc.edu/news/becoming-a-transformational-leader/

Snowden, D. (2002). Complex acts of knowing: Paradox and descriptiveself‐awareness. Journal of Knowledge Management, 6(2), 100–111. https://doi.org/10.1108/13673270210424639

Snowden, D. J., & Boone, M. E. (2007). A Leader’s Framework for Decision Making. Harvard Business Review, 85(11), 68–76.

Southwick, S. M., Bonanno, G. A., Masten, A. S., Panter-Brick, C., & Yehuda, R. (2014). Resilience definitions, theory, and challenges: Interdisciplinary perspectives. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 5, 10.3402/ejpt.v5.25338. https://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v5.25338

Stephens, J. P. (2014, February 25). How Showing Emotions Builds Individual and Team Resilience. Ideas for Leaders. https://bit.ly/3HMNjng

Stephens, J. P., Heaphy, E. D., Carmeli, A., Spreitzer, G. M., & Dutton, J. E. (2013). Relationship Quality and Virtuousness: Emotional Carrying Capacity as a Source of Individual and Team Resilience. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 49(1), 13–41. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021886312471193

Stern, E. (2013). Preparing: The Sixth Task of Crisis Leadership. Journal of Leadership Studies, 7(3), 51–56. https://doi.org/10.1002/jls.21298

Stiehm, J., & Townsend, N. W. (2002). The U.S. Army War College: Military Education in a Democracy (Illustrated edition). Temple University Press.

Stogdill, R. M. (1948). Personal Factors Associated with Leadership: A Survey of the Literature. The Journal of Psychology, 25(1), 35–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.1948.9917362

Sweeney, P. J. (2010). Do Soldiers Reevaluate Trust in Their Leaders Prior to Combat Operations? Military Psychology, 22(sup1), S70–S88. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995601003644312

Sweeney, P. J., Thompson, V., & Blanton, H. (2009). Trust and influence in combat: An interdependence model. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 39(1), 235–264. DOI: https://bit.ly/3RNujcB

Tajasom, A., Hung, D. K. M., Nikbin, D., & Hyun, S. S. (2015). The role of transformational leadership in innovation performance of Malaysian SMEs. Asian Journal of Technology Innovation, 23(2), 172–188. https://doi.org/10.1080/19761597.2015.1074513

Tedeschi, R. G., & Calhoun, L. G. (2004). Posttraumatic Growth: Conceptual Foundations and Empirical Evidence. Psychological Inquiry, 15(1), 1–18.

The Military Leader. (2020). The Military Leader Reading List.

Tol, W. A., & van Ommeren, M. (2012). Evidence-based mental health and psychosocial support in humanitarian settings: Gaps and opportunities. Evidence-Based Mental Health, 15(2), 25–26. https://doi.org/10.1136/ebmental-2012-100644

Towler, A. (2019, December 1). How charismatic leaders gain commitment to their vision and the mission of the organization. CQ Net - Management Skills for Everyone! https://bit.ly/3jPTFdD

Tracy, M., Norris, F. H., & Galea, S. (2011). Differences in the determinants of posttraumatic stress disorder and depression after a mass traumatic event. Depression and Anxiety, 28(8), 666–675. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20838

van Knippenberg, D., & Sitkin, S. B. (2013). A Critical Assessment of Charismatic—Transformational Leadership Research: Back to the Drawing Board? The Academy of Management Annals, 7(1), 1–60. https://doi.org/10.1080/19416520.2013.759433

VanSlyke, S., Brunell, K., & Simons, A. (2020, April 28). Leadership in the COVID Crisis: The Importance of Building Personal Resilience. Security Management. https://bit.ly/3XwqLwC

Villagran, M., Canzona, M. R., & Ledford, C. J. W. (2013). The milspouse battle rhythm: Communicating resilience throughout the deployment cycle. Health Communication, 28(8), 778–788. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2013.800441

Vroom, V. H., & Jago, A. G. (2007). The role of the situation in leadership. The American Psychologist, 62(1), 17–24; discussion 43-47. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.62.1.17

Walker, B., Nilakant, V., & Baird, R. (2014). Promoting Organisational Resilience through Sustaining Engagement in a Disruptive Environment: What are the implications for HRM? University of Canterbury.

Walsh, F. (2003). Family resilience: A framework for clinical practice. Family Process, 42(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1545-5300.2003.00001.x

Warn, J. R. (2007). Strategic Leadership in an Era of Complexity and Uncertainty. In J. Stouffer & A. Macintyre (Eds.), Strategic Leadership Development (pp. 1–20). Canadian Defence Academy Press.

Wasden, S. T. (2014). A Correlational Study on Transformational Leadership and Resilience in Higher Education Leadership. In ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC.

Williams, K. C. (2012). Business Intuition: The Mortar among the Bricks of Analysis. Undefined. https://bit.ly/40OxULX

Wolters, H. M. K., O’Shea, P. G., Ford, L. A., Fleisher, M. S., Adeniyi, M. A., Conzelman, C. E., & Webster, R. J. (2014). Identifying and Training Brigade Command Competencies. Military Psychology, 26(4), 278–291. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000052

Wood, M. D., Walker, T., Adler, A. B., & Crouch, C. L. (2020). Post-Traumatic Growth Leadership: Mitigating Stress in a High-Risk Occupation. Occupational Health Science, 4(1), 103–122. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41542-019-00052-2

Yaffe, T., & Kark, R. (2011). Leading by example: The case of leader OCB. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 96(4), 806–826. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022464

Yukl, G. (2013). Leadership in Organizations (8th ed.). Pearson. https://bit.ly/3jWyKFH

Zaleznik, A. (2004). Managers and Leaders: Are They Different? [Harvard Business Review]. https://hbr.org/2004/01/managers-and-leaders-are-they-different

Zhou, X., Wu, X., Zeng, M., & Tian, Y. (2016). The relationship between emotion regulation and PTSD/PTG among adolescents after the Ya’an earthquake: The moderating role of social support. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 48(8), 969–980. https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1041.2016.00969

Zoellner, T., Rabe, S., Karl, A., & Maercker, A. (2008). Posttraumatic growth in accident survivors: Openness and optimism as predictors of its constructive or illusory sides. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 64(3), 245–263. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20441

Zucchino, D. (2004). Thunder Run: The Armored Strike to Capture Baghdad. Atlantic Monthly Press. https://www.amazon.com/Thunder-Run-Armored-Capture-Baghdad/dp/080214179X

Published

2023-02-17

Issue

Section

Critical reflection articles